The Nagas

Halei-na genna notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection [11] Halei-Na (March) (Heramui must be performed before this genna. After Heramui cucumbers, maize and kachu are planted in ...
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Halei-na genna first day. Harrok-na (jhum-firing genna) notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 1st day. Harrok-na (jhum-firing genna). Formerly it was forbidden to bring water in...
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Halei-na genna second day. Halei-na notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 2nd day. Halei-na. The village is strictly closed. Everyone rises fasting. The old man of the house, or...
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Halei-na genna third day. Ka-ntoa-na notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 3rd day. Ka-ntoa-na. In the morning the young men go fasting to a place near the path below the villag...
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Halei-na genna fourth day. Kangim-bu-na notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 4th day. Kangim-bu-na. The village is strictly closed. No water may be carried or work done. The gi...
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Halei-na genna fifth day. Ntoa-gwa-na notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 5th day. Ntoa-gwa-na. First thing in the morning the buck who planted the rice goes fasting with one ...
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Halei-na genna sixth day. Haba-para-piak-penna notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 6th day. Haba-para-piak-penna. In the morning all the women and girls go to the path below t...
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Halei-na genna seventh day. Kan-tsi-na notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 7th day. Kan-tsi-na. On this day, or any convenient day when going to the jhums, each man makes a li...
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Halei-na genna eighth day. Heliem-zao-na notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 8th day. Heliem-zao-na. No field work is done, but the village is not closed. All is made ready fo...
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Halei-na genna ninth day. Heliem-na notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 9th day. Heliem-na. The pig is turned loose and caught by the bucks in the morning, and is then taken t...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower preparations for trip to Kakadan letters notes Abung Shamshu Arjun Jeffery/ C.F. Gaideleu 6.1.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection January 6th 1939 c...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower preparations for trip to Nungbi and Chingjaroi letters notes Ukhrul 12.2.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Feb 12th 1939 Ukhrul, Manipur State My ...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower description of servants letters notes Luikai/ of Nungbi Khunao Abung Saknio/ of Ukhrul Chinaorang/ of Nungbi Khunao Chingjaroi 30.3.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower witchcraft at Jessami letters notes Khizami Jessami 30.3.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection We had a spot of bother on arriving here from Kharasom....
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower were-tiger letters notes Luchai 30.3.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection On my last trip I went to a Tangkhul village called Luchai, and during the ...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower flirting letters notes Saknio 30.3.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection We have just been holding the morning dispensary, which was interrupted by gi...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower women; spitting letters notes 30.3.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection All the women who have nothing else to do have come into the basha uninvitd a...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower film letters notes 30.3.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Kodaks have sent up a parcel of cine films, most of which are pretty good; I'm most reli...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower medical work letters notes 30.3.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection I am due back in Imphal on April 20th, but considering how little we have adhere...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower back to Imphal; sadness at leaving letters notes 21.4.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection April 21st Well, here we are back in Imphal at last, the p...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower description of Luikai letters notes Luikai Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection [first part of letter missing] [Luikai] first arrived as my permanent cool...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower Jessami without a Compounder; witchcraft incident letters notes Jangsang Jessami Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Jangsang the Demon King - I mean com...
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letters from Ursula Graham Bower from Jessami to Huining letters notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection From Jessami we turned south again to Kharasom and Chingjaroi, then to Paowi, t...
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letters from J.P. Mills to Ursula Graham Bower letters notes Mills/ J.P. Betts/ Tim Godfrey 30.11.1945 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Camp Pire November 30 1945 My dear Ursula, Many...
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letters from J.P. Mills to Ursula Graham Bower letters notes Mills/ J.P. Archer 6.11.1945 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Camp Mai 6 November 1945 My dear Ursula, I have just heard f...
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letters from J.P. Mills to Ursula Graham Bower letters notes Mills/ J.P. Betts/ Tim 29.10.1945 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Oct 29th 1945 Stonylands, Shillong My dear Ursula, Afte...
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letters from J.P. Mills to Ursula Graham Bower letters notes Mills/ J.P. Perry Betts/ Tim 23.10.1945 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection October 23rd 1945 Stonylands, Shillong My dear Ur...
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letters from J.P. Mills to Ursula Graham Bower letters notes Mills/ J.P. Archer 20.2.1945 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Stonylands, Shillong 20 February 1945 My dear Ursula, It was...
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marriage notes Zemi Gobin Laisong Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Marriage. If a boy gets married, a girl of the same house may not marry that year. If one boy gets married, another ...
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marriage and 'apotia' deaths notes Ngwobuing/ of Thingje Zemi 2.1944 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection MARRIAGE AND "APOTIA" DEATHS. If a woman dies in childbirth, the villages which h...
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food taboos notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Food Taboos. The following may be eaten by old men only: 1. python 2. tiger, leopard-cat, leopard, and jungle-cats generally. 3. gam...
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use of personal names notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Personal names The use of these is very restricted, as it implies parental or near-parental relationship in the speak...
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theft notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Thefts Thefts of dhan from another village were punished - if the culprits were traced - by heavy fines, a mithan, a deo-moni necklac...
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games notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Boys 1) A brass earring is put in a hole in the ground, and all the players put their hands in the hole and grab for the ring at a given s...
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artefacts collected by Ursula Graham Bower Tangkhul pottery notes Tangkhul Nungbi Khunou (Nungbi Khunao) 15.2.1940 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Tangkhul pottery, Nungbi Khunao 1) ...
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artefacts collected by Ursula Graham Bower married woman's walking stick notes Tangkhul Ngapum 15.2.1940 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 3) "Theithing" - Tangkhul married woman's wal...
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artefacts collected by Ursula Graham Bower girl's necklace notes Tangkhul Nungbi Khunou (Nungbi Khunao) Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 4) "Cha" - Tangkhul girl's necklace. After mar...
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artefacts collected by Ursula Graham Bower Tangkhul spear notes Nungha (Nunghar) 15.2.1940 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection 5) "Kachei" - Tangkhul spear; ordinary model, rather batter...
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artefacts collected by Ursula Graham Bower stone-bowled tobacco pipe notes Namkiabuing/ of Impoi Haichangnang Mandu 9.1944 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Nkeu-rup-pu-bung Zemi stone...
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artefacts collected by Ursula Graham Bower young man's ear-plus and feather ornaments notes Laisong Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Buck's ear-plugs and feather ornaments. Worn by yo...
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artefacts collected by Ursula Graham Bower drinking vessel 'trran' notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Trran Drinking-vessel for zao-kasang, made from fine bamboo and water-proofed...
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artefacts collected by Ursula Graham Bower wooden dishes notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Hekwok-pi (2) Wooden dishes on legs; one Angami (the mended one), the other a Zemi copy...
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artefacts collected by Ursula Graham Bower wooden models of daos notes Zhekhuingba/ of Laisong Khangnam Laisong 12.1.1946 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Khangnam, wooden models of d...
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food taboos notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Tiger & leopard: old men only wild dog: old men only leopard-cat: old men only rats & mice: eaten by none bamboo rat: eaten ...
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costume cane leggings notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Article obsolete or of special interest Cane leggings were formerly worn but have been abandoned (hada = cane leggings; ha...
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costume collars of boars' tusks or sections of conch shell, 'mpe' notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Mpe Collars of boars' tusks or of sections of conch-shell, called by the above...
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costume armlets made of wild boars' tusks notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Nkia-peo-gim-tha ("Wild boar's tusk armlet") Armlets made of two tushes joined to form a ring are worn...
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costume headdress of hornbill feathers denoting sexual conquests notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Tala-na This headdress of hornbills' feathers may be worn by men of standing an...
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costume baldric denoting sexual conquests notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Kalang pung-ra heloma-gu This is the highest token of success in love-affairs that a man can win. As a...
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costume kilt notes Maruong Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection The kilt was formerly assumed much later that it is nowadays (i.e. at the first Hgangi after the boy attains a suitable age...
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costume hornbill feathers notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Hornbill tail-feathers: these cannot be worn by a virgin youth. If one should put on such a feather, even in fun, his ...
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costume taboo regarding women's petticoats notes Zingkaolang/ of Maguilong Khutuing/ of Maguilong Magulong (Maguilong) Paisa (Peisia) 10.1944 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection No man m...
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'deo-moni' necklaces notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection When a man buys a new necklace he puts it round the neck of a "lao" (gourd) for a few minutes before putting it on for the ...
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new house ritual notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Houses When a new house is completed and the family move in, a dog must be put up on the bed for a few seconds before anyone ma...
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spirits notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection House-spirits All house and the village water-supply have benevolent spirits attached to them. They are very rarely seen, and then only ...
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dekachangs notes nzun-ze Zemi Khangnam Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Nzun-ze: dekachangs used to, and should, have at least one nzun-ze, a massive sleeping-bench carved from a sing...
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divorce notes Zemi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection General Divorce is allowed for incompatibility and desertion and adultery on the part of the wife; adultery by the husband is not a...
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jhuming notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Cultivation (laws and customs relating to) Jhuming of virgin jungle: the owner of land on which anyone else cuts jhums in virgin jungle ...
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gennas sickness genna - 'haraitsak' notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Haraitsak (Haraichak) (genna against sickness) Used 1) When a man taken ill outside his village is brought i...
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gennas sickness genna - 'hera-na' notes Hangrum 1.8.1943 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Hera-na (Hangrum) (1.8.43) The tingkhupeo proclaims a "na" all the villagers being inside the...
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field gennas 'hemeo-kezab-ra' notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Hemeo-kezab-ra If the ground in a field cracks through drought or other causes, this genna must be performed, and ...
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field gennas 'huzam-kia' notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Huzam-kia Done for a slip in the jhums. Performed by tingkhupeo. A pig is offered to appease the hera who caused the sl...
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field gennas 'nei-ku-ra' notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Nei-ku-ra Performed if a dhan-stalk is found with 10 nodes or joints. Dhan must be carried in by an even number of men....
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field gennas 'ting-teo-go' notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Ting-teo-go (Laisong & Hangrum, Asalu use this only to get sun to ripen the harvest. Hangrum did this in the wet ...
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field gennas 'kaleo-da-ge-na' notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Another genna to stop rain: kaleo-da-ge-na It is performed by the tingkhupeo in the morning in front of the house ...
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field gennas 'hazam kia-hera-teora' notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Hazam kia-hera-teora Performed if a field house catches fire; intended to recall the rice "which has run awa...
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gennas laxity over gennas notes Laisong 24.1.1946 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Note: On 24.1.46 Laisong village performed the ceremony hapao-lia-na, making offerings similar to th...
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scented creeper worn as decoration notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Nam-nieng This scented creeper, whose leaves are worn as decoration by the young bucks because of its alleged...
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gennas personal gennas concerning domestic animals notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Personal gennas If a goat gives birth or a sow farrows, 5 days genna is observed. The house i...
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hunting rituals notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Hunting When a deer has been killed the carcase may not be cut up (though the throat may be cut if the deer is not quite dead) u...
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dangers of being well-known or famous notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Hamui (hamui-hera) The unusually well-known or famous or anyone liable to be talked about is apt to become...
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luck stones notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Hga ("luck stones") The right kind of stone makes a nest for itself of grass, leaves and so on, and sits in it; when a man comes on ...
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gennas village genna concerning tiger kill notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Tigers If a tiger has taken a mithan or other animal, the owner may ask the tingkhupeo to proclaim a ...
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stone monuments notes Magulong (Maguilong) Asalu 15.11.1941 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Heramleo built by Maguilong men at Asalu Sketch-plan, measurements & photos taken 15.1...
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death and funerals notes Hangrum Asalu Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Death, funerals and associated customs Hangrum village regularly observe a day's abstention from field work on ...
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funeral at Laisong notes Laisong 15.10.1942 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Funeral seen at Laisong, 15.10.42, 5.30pm. The man died at dawn. Many of the villagers were in the fields,...
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death in childbirth; apotia death notes Asalu Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Death in childbirth or through miscarriage is most unfortunate, and those dying so are very liable to be...
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women's grave ornaments notes Impoi 1.1943 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection They also put up near the grave (as for all men) a pole with carved edges and an affair at the top like not...
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death during harvest genna notes 19.10.1942 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection A death while the crops are ripe and the harvest is being gathered entails a day's na called 'neo-sit-na. ...
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dreams notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection To dream of eating sugar or anything similar means the dreamer will have a cold in the head. To dream of being bitten by a snake or leech...
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stones at Khangnam notes Khangnam 11.1.1946 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection A newly-erected line of stones near Khangnam, seen about 11.1.46; had two stones with smaller stones in fr...
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charms and medicines notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Kapeo. For sprains, strains and aches the leaves of this bush, which is grown near most villages, are soaked in hot water a...
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omens notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection The croaking of a certain small frog in a house is a sign that the house will soon be empty and is particularly unlucky if anyone in the h...
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beliefs with regard to animals - barking deer; Kamaileng - myth notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection The barking deer's blood and bite are both said to be bad. To account for the la...
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plant lore notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection The wild fig-tree (v. story of Kangiena) is said to be the "priest of the trees". The old men say it is not safe to eat too many of i...
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proverbs and sayings notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1937-1946 private collection Thak-ga-mina thakteone paigamina paikivubane. Rice-not-child rice-to-eat wishes cloth-not-child cloth-good- one-wear-wishes...
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burial at Ukhrul notes Tangkhul Ukhrul 2.1939 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge Betts papers, folder 7 (1) Tangkhul Funeral Ukhrul, Feb: 1939. 1. Old man pours ...
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myth concerning the founding of Chingjaroi notes Resu Rasu Kadiva Mosem/ of Chingjaroi Chingjaroi Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge Betts papers, folder 7 (10) T...
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founding a village notes tingkhupeo Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge Founding a village. The would-be founders go to the selected sp...
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fish poisoning notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge Fish poisoning is now forbidden but is sometimes carried out by permission. Ba...
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eating hornet grubs notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge 'Nkuidipui' (Hornets) The grub of a certain kind of jungle hornet is much...
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extinct village of Izeingram; Angami raiding notes Paozeguong/ of Asalu Haichangnang Namrebuing/ of Asalu Angami 7.1940 Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asia...
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gennas Hameo-roa-kappu-hera genna: to protect ripening crops notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge Hameo-roa-kappu-hera Done at any...
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Potpatngi genna: done in September after the early rice has been harvested gennas notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge Potpatngi T...
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Potpatngi genna: done in September after the early rice has been harvested gennas notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge 1st day At ...
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Potpatngi genna: done in September after the early rice has been harvested gennas notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge 2nd day. An...
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Potpatngi genna: done in September after the early rice has been harvested gennas notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge 3rd day. Po...
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Potpatngi genna: done in September after the early rice has been harvested gennas notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge 4th day. No...
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Potpatngi genna: done in September after the early rice has been harvested gennas notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge 5th day. Th...
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gennas Nkamngi genna: performed October-November notes Graham Bower/ Ursula 1939-1946 Betts papers, ring binder 1 Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge Nkamngi (in the month Haru-keu). On the last...
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